MMSL 2023, 92(4):298-303 | DOI: 10.31482/mmsl.2023.001

KRATOM AND ITS EFFECTS ON AN ORGANISMReview article

Miroslav Pohanka ORCID...*, Josef Fusek ORCID...
Fakulta vojenského zdravotnictví, Univerzita obrany v Brně, Třebešská 1575, Hradec Králové, Česká republika

Termínem kratom jsou současně označovány stromy Mitragyna speciosa vyskytující se v jihovýchodní Asii a produkty získané z jeho listů. V sušině je obsažena řada biologicky účinných alkaloidů včetně více zastoupených látek mitragynin a 7-hydroxymitragynin působících na opioidní receptory. V tradiční asijské medicíně se kratom užívá například jako anestetikum, pro léčbu kašle, průjmu a pro zrychlení hojení ran. Nadměrné užívání kratomu může mít nežádoucí účinky a v některých zemích je kratom považován za návykovou látku. V tomto přehledném textu je představen původ, mechanizmus účinku, žádoucí a nežádoucí účinky na organizmus a legislativní aspekty jeho distribuce.

Keywords: 7-hydroxymitragynin; anestetikum; droga; mitragynin; Mitragyna speciosa; návyková látka; opioidní receptor

Both the Mitragyna speciosa and products manufactured from its leaves are named kratom. The dry material of kratom contains a number of biologically active alkaloids, including two abundant substances mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine that interact with opioid receptors. Kratom is used as an anesthetic, antitussive, antidiarrheal, and wound-healing drug. Adverse effects can follow the excessive intake of kratom, and it is also considered an addictive substance in some countries. This review describes kratom's origin, biological effects' mechanism, its therapeutic and adverse impact on an organism, and the legislative aspects of its sale are described here.

Keywords: 7-hydroxymitragynine; anesthetics; drug; mitragynine; Mitragyna speciosa; addictive substance; opioid receptor

Received: November 4, 2022; Revised: December 13, 2022; Accepted: January 5, 2023; Prepublished online: February 15, 2023; Published: December 1, 2023  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Pohanka, M., & Fusek, J. (2023). KRATOM AND ITS EFFECTS ON AN ORGANISM. MMSL, 92(4), 298-303. doi: 10.31482/mmsl.2023.001
Share...
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Ghazalli MN, Sah MSM, Mat M, et al. Leaf Anatomy and Micromorphology Characteristics of Ketum Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. (Rubiaceae). Trop Life Sci Res. 2021;32(1):105-115. Go to original source...
    2. Veeramohan R, Azizan KA, Aizat WM, et al. Metabolomics data of Mitragyna speciosa leaf using LC-ESI-TOF-MS. Data Brief. 2018;18:1212-1216. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    3. Leon F, Habib E, Adkins JE, et al. Phytochemical Characterization of the Leaves of Mitragyna speciosa Grown in USA. Nat Prod Commun. 2009;4(7):907-910. Go to original source...
    4. Shellard EJ, Houghton PJ, Resha M. The mitragyna spp of Asia part 32 the distribution of alkaloids in young plants of mitragyna speciosa grown from seed obtained from Thailand. Planta Med. 1978;34(3):253-263. Go to original source...
    5. Avula B, Sagi S, Wang YH, et al. Identification and Characterization of Indole and Oxindole Alkaloids from Leaves of Mitragyna speciosa Korth Using Liquid Chromatography-Accurate QToF Mass Spectrometry. J AOAC Int. 2015;98(1):13-21. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    6. Kikura-Hanajiri R, Kawamura M, Maruyama T, et al. Simultaneous analysis of mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine, and other alkaloids in the psychotropic plant "kratom" (Mitragyna speciosa) by LC-ESI-MS. Forensic Toxicol. 2009;27(2):67-74. Go to original source...
    7. Zhang MZ, Sharma A, Leon F, et al. Effects of Nutrient Fertility on Growth and Alkaloidal Content in Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom). Front Plant Sci. 2020;11:12. Go to original source...
    8. Harizal SN, Mansor SM, Hasnan J, et al. Acute toxicity study of the standardized methanolic extract of Mitragyna speciosa Korth in Rodent. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;131(2):404-409. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    9. Sabetghadam A, Ramanathan S, Sasidharan S, et al. Subchronic exposure to mitragynine, the principal alkaloid of Mitragyna speciosa, in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146(3):815-823. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    10. Torres-Ortiz A, Al Zein S, Alqudsi M. A Case of Hyperkalemia Induced by Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa). Cureus J Med Sci. 2022;14(4):5. Go to original source...
    11. Saidin NA, Holmes E, Takayama H, et al. The cellular toxicology of mitragynine, the dominant alkaloid of the narcotic-like herb, Mitragyna speciosa Korth. Toxicol Res. 2015;4(5):1173-1183. Go to original source...
    12. Goh YS, Karunakaran T, Murugaiyah V, et al. Accelerated Solvent Extractions (ASE) of Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (Kratom) Leaves: Evaluation of Its Cytotoxicity and Antinociceptive Activity. Molecules. 2021;26(12):16. Go to original source...
    13. Karinen R, Fosen JT, Rogde S, et al. An accidental poisoning with mitragynine. Forensic SciInt. 2014;245:E29-E32. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    14. Obeng S, Wilkerson JL, León F, et al. Pharmacological Comparison of Mitragynine and 7-Hydroxymitragynine: In Vitro Affinity and Efficacy for μ-Opioid Receptor and Opioid-Like Behavioral Effects in Rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2021;376(3):410-427. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    15. Chin KY, Mark-Lee WF. A Review on the Antinociceptive Effects of Mitragyna speciosa and Its Derivatives on Animal Model. Curr Drug Targets. 2018;19(12):1359-1365. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    16. Babu KM, McCurdy CR, Boyer EW. Opioid receptors and legal highs: Salvia divinorum and Kratom. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2008;46(2):146-152. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    17. Varadi A, Marrone GF, Palmer TC, et al. Mitragynine/Corynantheidine Pseudoindoxyls As Opioid Analgesics with Mu Agonism and Delta Antagonism, Which Do Not Recruit beta-Arrestin-2. J Med Chem. 2016;59(18):8381-8397. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    18. Leon F, Obeng S, Mottinelli M, et al. Activity of Mitragyna speciosa ("Kratom") Alkaloids at Serotonin Receptors. J Med Chem. 2021;64(18):13510-13523. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    19. Utar Z, Majid MIA, Adenan MI, et al. Mitragynine inhibits the COX-2 mRNA expression and prostaglandin E-2 production induced by lipopolysaccharide in RAW264.7 macrophage cells. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;136(1):75-82. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    20. Annas S, Mossadeq WMS, Kadir AA. Antipyretic Effect of Mitragynine and Crude Methanolic Extract of Mitragyna speciosa Korth. in Mice. Pertanika J Trop Agr Sci. 2020;43(2):207-216.
    21. Eudaley ST, Brooks SP, Hamilton LA. Case Report: Possible Serotonin Syndrome in a Patient Taking Kratom and Multiple Serotonergic Agents. J Pharm Pract.5.
    22. Brogdon HD, McPhee MM, Paine MF, et al. A Case of Potential Pharmacokinetic Kratom-drug Interactions Resulting in Toxicity and Subsequent Treatment of Kratom Use Disorder With Buprenorphine/Naloxone. J Addict Med. 2022;16(5):606-609. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    23. Manda VK, Avula B, Ali Z, et al. Evaluation of In Vitro Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion (ADME) Properties of Mitragynine, 7-Hydroxymitragynine, and Mitraphylline. Planta Med. 2014;80(7):568-576. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    24. Trakulsrichai S, Sathirakul K, Auparakkitanon S, et al. Pharmacokinetics of mitragynine in man. Drug Des Dev Ther. 2015;9:2421-2429. Go to original source...
    25. Vicknasingam B, Chooi WT, Rahim AA, et al. Kratom and Pain Tolerance: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind Study. Yale J Biol Med. 2020;93(2):229-238.
    26. Domnic G, Narayanan S, Mohana-Kumaran N, et al. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) an overlooked medicinal plant in Malaysia. J Subst Use. 2022;27(1):1-6. Go to original source...
    27. Khunnawutmanotham N, Chimnoi N, Nangkoed P, et al. Facile Extraction of Three Main Indole Alkaloids from Mitragyna speciosa by Using Hot Water. ChemistrySelect. 2021;6(38):10221-10225. Go to original source...
    28. Warner ML, Kaufman NC, Grundmann O. The pharmacology and toxicology of kratom: from traditional herb to drug of abuse. Int J Legal Med. 2016;130(1):127-138. Go to original source...
    29. Singh D, Müller CP, Vicknasingam BK. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) dependence, withdrawal symptoms and craving in regular users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;139:132-137. Go to original source...
    30. Raini M. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth): Benefits, Side Effects and Legality. Media Penelit Pengemb Kesehat. 2017;27(3):175-184. Go to original source...

    Return to the content