MMSL 2025, 94(3):115-121 | DOI: 10.31482/mmsl.2024.008

AGARITINE: A NATURAL TOXIC AMINO ACID OF CULTIVATED MUSHROOM AGARICUS SPP. AND ITS POTENTIAL HEALTH RISKReview article

Matěj Malík ORCID...1, Lucie Malá ORCID...2,3, Uday Kumar Killi ORCID...4, Bohumír Plucar5, Otakar Jiří Mika ORCID...4,6, Zdeňka Navrátilová ORCID...7, Patrik Olekąák ORCID...8*, Jiří Patočka ORCID...4,8
1 Department of Agroenvironmental Chemistry and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
2 Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic
3 Department of Nutritional Physiology and Animal Product Quality, Institute of Animal Science, Prague, Czech Republic
4 Department of Radiology, Toxicology and Civil Protection, Faculty of Health and Social Studies, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
5 Reflexology Laboratory, Brno, Czech Republic
6 Department of Crisis Management, Faculty of Security Management, Police Academy of the Czech Republic in Prague, Czech Republic
7 Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
8 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Králové

Agaritine, a naturally occurring amino acid and phenylhydrazine derivative found in mushrooms of the genus Agaricus, has gained attention due to its potential impact on human health. The presence of the hydrazine moiety in the structure of agaritine plays a crucial role in its toxicological properties. It has raised concerns due to its high reactivity as chemical radicals. Therefore, research is commonly focused on the potential health risks of agaritine and its possible role as a pro-carcinogenic agent. However, some studies did not provide evidence of agaritine's toxicological effects. Therefore, further research is needed to understand agaritine's mechanisms of action and its safe consumption levels in humans. This review aims to provide an overview of current knowledge surrounding agaritine and its potential health risks.

Keywords: Agaritine; Hydrazine; Agaricus bisporus; Human health

Received: August 22, 2023; Revised: March 1, 2024; Accepted: May 2, 2024; Prepublished online: May 16, 2024; Published: September 1, 2025  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Malík, M., Malá, L., Kumar Killi, U., Plucar, B., Mika, O.J., Navrátilová, Z., Olekąák, P., & Patočka, J. (2025). AGARITINE: A NATURAL TOXIC AMINO ACID OF CULTIVATED MUSHROOM AGARICUS SPP. AND ITS POTENTIAL HEALTH RISK. MMSL, 94(3), 115-121. doi: 10.31482/mmsl.2024.008
Share...
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Zhang K, Pu Y-Y, Sun D-W. Recent advances in quality preservation of postharvest mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus): A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2018;(78):72-82. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.05.012 Go to original source...
    2. Thongklang N, Hoang E, Rodriguez Estrada AE, et al. Evidence for amphithallism and broad geographical hybridization potential among Agaricus subrufescens isolates from Brazil, France, and Thailand. Fungal Biol. 2014;118(12):1013-1023. DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2014.10.004 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    3. Thongklang N, Nawaz R, Khalid AN, et al. Morphological and molecular characterization of three Agaricus species from tropical Asia (Pakistan, Thailand) reveals a new group in section Xanthodermatei. Mycologia. 2014;106(6):1220-1232. DOI: 10.3852/14-076 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    4. He M-Q, Chen J, Zhou J-L, et al. Tropic origins, a dispersal model for saprotrophic mushrooms in Agaricus section Minores with descriptions of sixteen new species. Sci Rep. Nature Publishing Group; 2017;7(1):5122. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05203-5 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    5. Sitotaw R, Lulekal E, Abate D. Ethnomycological study of edible and medicinal mushrooms in Menge District, Asossa Zone, Benshangul Gumuz Region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020;16(1):11. DOI: 10.1186/s13002-020-00361-9 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    6. Joshi M, Bhargava P, Bhatt M, et al. Mushrooms of Gujarat. Springer Nature; 2022. Go to original source...
    7. Firenzuoli F, Gori L, Lombardo G. The Medicinal Mushroom Agaricus blazei Murrill: Review of Literature and Pharmaco-Toxicological Problems. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2008;5(1):3-15. DOI: 10.1093/ecam/nem007 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    8. Royse D. A global perspective on the high five: Agaricus, Pleurotus, Lentinula, Auricularia & Flammulina. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Mushroom Biology and Mushroom Products (ICMBMP8); 2014.
    9. Lewinsohn D, Lurie Y, Gaon A, et al. The epidemiology of wild mushroom poisoning in Israel. Mycologia. 2023;115(3):317-325. DOI: 10.1080/00275514.2023.2177471 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    10. Karlson-Stiber C, Persson H. Cytotoxic fungi--an overview. Toxicon. 2003;42(4):339-349. DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(03)00238-1 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    11. ten Have R, Wijngaard H, Ariës-Kronenburg NAE, et al. Lignin degradation by Agaricus bisporus accounts for a 30% increase in bioavailable holocellulose during cultivation on compost. J Agric Food Chem. 2003;51(8):2242-2245. DOI: 10.1021/jf021131h Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    12. Gry J, Andersson C, Krüger L, et al. Mushrooms traded as food. Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers; 2012. Go to original source...
    13. Roupas P, Keogh J, Noakes M, et al. Mushrooms and agaritine: A mini-review. Journal of Functional Foods. 2010;2(2):91-98. DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2010.04.003 Go to original source...
    14. Ross AE, Nagel DL, Toth B. Evidence for the occurrence and formation of diazonium ions in the Agaricus bisporus mushroom and its extracts. J Agric Food Chem. 1982;30(3):521-525. DOI: 10.1021/jf00111a028 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    15. Spencer PS. Hypothesis: Etiologic and Molecular Mechanistic Leads for Sporadic Neurodegenerative Diseases Based on Experience With Western Pacific ALS/PDC. Front Neurol. 2019;10:754. DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00754 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    16. Toth B. Synthetic and naturally occurring hydrazines as possible cancer causative agents. Cancer Res. 1975;35(12):3693-3697.
    17. Toth B, Sornson H. Lack of carcinogenicity of agaritine by subcutaneous administration in mice. Mycopathologia. 1984;85(1-2):75-79. DOI: 10.1007/BF00436706 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    18. Hashida C, Hayashi K, Jie L, et al. [Quantities of agaritine in mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) and the carcinogenicity of mushroom methanol extracts on the mouse bladder epithelium]. Nihon Koshu Eisei Zasshi. 1990;37(6):400-405.
    19. Singh K, Kumari A. Mushroom Toxins and Health Hazards Associated with Them. Mycotoxins and Mycotoxicoses. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore; 2022. Go to original source...
    20. Masroor M. Do Mushrooms also Cause Cancer in Human? EC Emergency Medicine and Critical Care. 2021;5:20-27.
    21. Hess J. Mushrooms, Snacks, and Dairy Foods: Health Impacts, Consumption Patterns, and Dietary Guidance. 2018
    22. Weisburger J, Barnes W, Czerniak R. Mutagens and carcinogens in food. Diet, nutrition and cancer: a critical evaluation. 1st Edition. CRC Press; 2018. Go to original source...
    23. Lagrange E, Vernoux J-P. Correction: Lagrange, E.; Vernoux, J.-P. Warning on False or True Morels and Button Mushrooms with Potential Toxicity Linked to Hydrazinic Toxins: An Update. Toxins 2020, 12, 482. Toxins (Basel). 2022;14(5):345. DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050345 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    24. Coulet M, Guillot J. Poisoning by Gyromitra : a possible mechanism. Med Hypotheses. 1982;8(4):325-334. DOI: 10.1016/0306-9877(82)90024-x Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    25. Patocka J, Pita R, Kuca K. Gyromitrin, mushroom toxin of Gyromitra spp. Mil Med Sci Lett. 2012;81:61-67. DOI: 10.31482/mmsl.2012.008 Go to original source...
    26. Hajslová J, Hájková L, Schulzová V, et al. Stability of agaritine - a natural toxicant of Agaricus mushrooms. Food Addit Contam. 2002;19(11):1028-1033. DOI: 10.1080/02652030210157691 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    27. Schulzova V, Hajslova J, Peroutka R, et al. Agaritine content of 53 Agaricus species collected from nature. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 2009;26(1):82-93. DOI: 10.1080/02652030802039903 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    28. Andersson HC, Hajslová J, Schulzová V, et al. Agaritine content in processed foods containing the cultivated mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) on the Nordic and the Czech market. Food Addit Contam. 1999;16(10):439-446. DOI: 10.1080/026520399283830 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    29. Fischer B, Lüthy J, Schlatter C. [Rapid determination of agaritin in commercial mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) with high performance liquid chromatography]. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 1984;179(3):218-223. DOI: 10.1007/BF01041897 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    30. Liu J-W, Beelman R, Lineback D, et al. Agaritine Content of Fresh and Processed Mushrooms [Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach]. Journal of Food Science. 1982;47(5):1542-1544. Go to original source...
    31. Koge T, Komatsu W, Sorimachi K. Heat stability of agaritine in water extracts from Agaricus blazei and other edible fungi, and removal of agaritine by ethanol fractionation. Food Chemistry. Food Chemistry 2011;126:1172-1177. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.11.153 Go to original source...
    32. Sharman M, Patey AL, Gilbert J. A survey of the occurrence of agaritine in U.K. cultivated mushrooms and processed mushroom products. Food Addit Contam. 1990;7(5):649-656. DOI: 10.1080/02652039009373930 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    33. Ahn W-S, Kim D-J, Chae G-T, et al. Natural killer cell activity and quality of life were improved by consumption of a mushroom extract, Agaricus blazei Murill Kyowa, in gynecological cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2004;14(4):589-594. DOI: 10.1111/j.1048-891X.2004.14403.x Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    34. Akiyama H, Endo M, Matsui T, et al. Agaritine from Agaricus blazei Murrill induces apoptosis in the leukemic cell line U937. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2011;1810(5):519-525. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2011.02.010 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    35. Kim C-F, Jiang J-J, Leung K-N, et al. Inhibitory effects of Agaricus blazei extracts on human myeloid leukemia cells. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;122(2):320-326. DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2008.12.025 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    36. Adams LS, Phung S, Wu X, et al. White button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) exhibits antiproliferative and proapoptotic properties and inhibits prostate tumor growth in athymic mice. Nutr Cancer. 2008;60(6):744-756. DOI: 10.1080/01635580802192866 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    37. Lagrange E, Vernoux J-P. Warning on False or True Morels and Button Mushrooms with Potential Toxicity Linked to Hydrazinic Toxins: An Update. Toxins (Basel). 2020;12(8):482. DOI: 10.3390/toxins12080482 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    38. Kondo K, Watanabe A, Akiyama H, et al. The metabolisms of agaritine, a mushroom hydrazine in mice. Food Chem Toxicol. 2008;46(3):854-862. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.10.022 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    39. Spencer PS, Okot C, Palmer VS, et al. Nodding syndrome: A key role for sources of nutrition? eNeurologicalSci. 2022;27:100401. DOI: 10.1016/j.ensci.2022.100401 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    40. Ferrucci V, Boffa I, De Masi G, et al. Natural compounds for pediatric cancer treatment. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2016;389(2):131-149. DOI: 10.1007/s00210-015-1191-5 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    41. Shephard SE, Gunz D, Schlatter C. Genotoxicity of agaritine in the lacI transgenic mouse mutation assay: evaluation of the health risk of mushroom consumption. Food Chem Toxicol. 1995;33(4):257-264. DOI: 10.1016/0278-6915(94)00142-b Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    42. Shephard SE, Schlatter C. Covalent binding of agaritine to DNA in vivo. Food Chem Toxicol. 1998;36(11):971-974. DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(98)00076-3 Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    43. Gry J, Andersson C. Mushrooms traded as food. Vol II sec 2: Nordic risk assessments and background on edible mushrooms, suitable for commercial marketing and background lists for industry, trade and food inspection. Risk assessments of mushrooms on the four guidance lists: Nordic Council of Ministers; 2014.

    Return to the content