MMSL 2012, 81(4):142-163 | DOI: 10.31482/mmsl.2012.022
TOXIC ALCOHOLS: ALIPHATIC SATURATED ALCOHOLSReview article
- 1 Department of Radiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Health and Social Studies, University of South Bohemia, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
- 2 Center of Advanced Studies, Faculty of Military Health Sciences, University of Defence, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
- 3 Biomedical research center, University Hospital, Sokolska 581, 500 05 Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
Toxic alcohols that clinicians commonly encounter are ethylene glycol, methanol, and isopropanol. Adults ingest these either for suicidal intent or to achieve inebriation, since these substances are readily available and cheaper than alcohol. Nevertheless, assorted alcohols are used very often in many applications and any alcohol can be toxic if ingested in large enough quantities. Toxic alcohols discussed here include all saturated aliphatic alcohols containing from 1 to 6 carbons in their molecules.
Keywords: toxic alcohols; methanol; ethanol; propanol; isopropanol; butanols; pentanols; hexanols; higher alcohols
Received: August 3, 2012; Revised: August 24, 2012; Published: December 7, 2012 Show citation
References
- Adla MR, Gonzalez-Paoli JA, Rifkin SI. Isopropyl alcohol ingestion presenting as pseudorenal failure due to acetone interference. South Med J. 2009, 102, 867-869.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Andersson B, Andersson K, Nilsson CA. Mass spectrometric identification of 2-ethylhexanol in indoor air: Recovery studies by charcoal sampling and gas chromatographic analysis at the micrograms per cubis metre level. J Chromatogr 1984, 291, 257-263.
Go to original source...
- Andresen H, Schmoldt H, Matschke J, Flachskampf FA, Turk EE. Fatal methanol intoxication with different survival times - morphological findings and postmortem methanol distribution. Forensic Sci Int. 2008, 179, 206-210.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Anonymous. 2-Methyl-2-butanol. Drugs Forum 2005. Online http://www.drugs-forum.com/forum/showthread.php?t=141834
- Anonymous. 2-Butanol, isobutanol, tert-butanol. Arbete Halsa. 1984, 44, 98-105.
- Anonymous. 2-Ethylhexanol. Berufs Chem Ind 1995, 114, p 47.
Go to original source...
- Anonymous. Butanols four isomers: 1-butanol, 2-butanol, tert-butanol, isobutanol. Environ Health Crit 65, IPCS Int Progr Chem Safety, WHO Geneva, 1987, p 141.
- Anonymous. Screening Assessment for the Challenge 1-Propanol, 2-methoxy-(2-Methoxypropanol). Environ Canada Health Canada, 2009. Online http://www.ec.gc.ca/substances/ese/eng/challenge/batch3/batch3_1589-47-5_en.pdf
- Avella J, Briglia E, Harleman G, Lehrer M. Percutaneous absorption and distribution of methanol in a homicide. J Anal Toxicol., 2005, 29, 734-737.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Baker SJ, Chrzan GJ, Park CN, Saunders JH. Behavioral effects of 0 and 0.05% blood alcohol in male volunteers. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol. 1986, 8, 77-81.
Go to PubMed...
- Baraud J, Genevois L. Determination of 3-methyl-2-butanol and 3-pentanol in the products of alcohol fermentation. [Article in French] C R Hebd Seances Acad Sci. 1958, 247, 2479-2481.
- Bengtsson BE, Renberg L, Tarkpea M. Molecular structure and aquatic toxicity - an example with C1-C13 aliphatic alcohols. Chemosphere. 1984, 13, 613-622.
Go to original source...
- Bilzer N, Schmutte P, Jehs M, Penners BM. Kinetics of aliphatic alcohols (methanol, propanol-1 and isobutanol) in the presence of alcohol in the human body]. [Article in German] Blutalkohol. 1990, 27, 385-409.
Go to PubMed...
- Blanchet B, Charachon A, Lukat S, Huet E, Hulin A, Astier A. A case of mixed intoxication with isopropyl alcohol and propanol-1 after ingestion of a topical antiseptic solution. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2007, 45, 701-704.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Bogomolova IN, Bukeshov MK, Bogomolov DV. The forensic medical diagnosis of intoxication of alcohol surrogates by morphological findings. Sudebno-Medit Eksp 2004, 47, 22-25.
- Brandenberger H, Maes RAA. Analytical Toxicology for Clinical, Forensic and Pharmaceutical Chemists, 1997.
Go to original source...
- Bunc M, Pezdir T, Mozina H, Mozina M, Brvar M. Butanol ingestion in an airport hangar. Human Exp Toxicol. 2006, 25, 195-197.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Burns AB, Bailie GR, Eisele G, McGoldrick D, Swift T, Rosano TG. Use of pharmacokinetics to determine the duration of dialysis in management of methanol poisoning. Am J Emerg Med. 1998, 16, 538-540.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Butterworth KR, Gaunt IF, Heading CE, Grasso P, Gangolli SD. Short-term toxicity of n-amyl alcohol in rats. Food Cosmet Toxicol. 1976, 16, 203-207.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Carpannini von MB, Gaunt IF, Kiss IS, Grasso P, Gamgolli SD. Short-term toxicity of isoamyl alcohol in rats. Food Cosme Toxicol. 1973, 11, 713-724.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Carr GD. Alcoholism: a modern look at an ancient illness. Prim Care. 2001, 38, 9-21.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Castro GD, Costantini MH, Delgado de Layño, Castro JA. Rat liver microsomal and nuclear activation of methanol to hydroxymethyl free radicals. Toxicology Lett. 2002, 129, 227-236.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Chan WC, Lai YZ. Kinetic characteristics of n-butyl alcohol and iso-butyl alcohol in a composite bead air biofilter. Bioresour Technol. 2008, 99, 4380-4385.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Chen M. Amended final report of the safety assessment of t-butyl alcohol as used in cosmetics. Int J Toxicol. 2005, 24, Suppl 2, 1-20.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Chvapil M, Zahradnik R, Cmuchalova B. Influence of alcohols and potassium salts of xanthogenic acids on various biological objects. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther. 1962, 135, 330-343.
- Cirvello JD, Radovsky A, Heath JE, Farnell DR, Lindamood C 3rd. Toxicity and carcinogenicity of t-butyl alcohol in rats and mice following chronic exposure in drinking water. Toxicol Ind Health. 1995, 11, 151-165.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Clark JD. Isopropyl alcohol intoxication. J Emerg Nurs. 2010, 36, 81-82.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Clemmensen A, Andersen F, Petersen TK, Kalden H, Melgaard A, Andersen KE. The irritant potential of n-propanol (nonanoic acid vehicle) in cumulative skin irritation: a validation study of two different human in vivo test models. Skin Res Technol. 2008, 14, 277-286.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Cooper JR, Feliog P. The biochemistry of methanol poisoning. II. Metabolic acidosis in the monkey. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1961, 3, 202-209.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Czech E, Olszowy Z, Nowicka J. The influence of L-carnitine on methanol biotransformation in rats. Exp Toxicol Pathol. 2004, 55, 367-377.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Davanzo F, Settimi L, Condò M, Marcello I, Zoppi F, Binetti R. A cluster of methanol-related poisonings in Sicily: case characterization and identification of unexpected sources of exposure. [Article in Italian] Epidemiol Prev. 2009, 33, 104-112.
- David DJ, Spyker DA. The acute toxicity of ethanol: dosage and kinetic nomograms. Vet Hum Toxicol. 1979, 21, 272-276.
- De Bruijn JHM, Busser F, Seinen W, Hermens J. Determination of octanol/water partition coefficients with the 'slow-stirring' method. Environ Toxicol Chem. 1989, 8, 499-512.
Go to original source...
- De Wolf FA, Bruyn GW. Acute ethanol intoxication. IN: Vinken PJ, de Wolf FA. Intoxications of the Nervous System. Vol. 64. Elsevier Health Sci., 1995, p 506.
- Dubina ON, Maksimov GG. Testing the use of golden hamsters in toxicological research. Gig Tr Ohkh. Zdorov Rabot Neft Neftekhim Prom. 1976, 9, 100-103.
- Durwald W, Degen W. Fatal poisoning with n-propyl alcohol. [Article in German] Arch Toxikol. 1956, 16, 84-88.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Ema M, Hara H, Matsumoto M, Hirose A, Kamata E. Evaluation of developmental toxicity of 1-butanol given to rats in drinking water throughout pregnancy. Food Chem Toxicol. 2005, 43, 325-331.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Epker JL, Bakker J. Accidental methanol ingestion: case report. BMC Emerg Med. 2010, 10, 3.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Ernstgard L, Norback D, Nordquist T, Wieslander G, Walinder R, Johanson G. Acute effect of exposure to 1mg/m(3) of vaporized 2-ethyl-1-hexanol in humans. Indoor Air. 2010, 20, 168-175.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Ezeji TC, Qureshi N, Blaschek HP. Bioproduction of butanol from biomass: from genes to bioreactors. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2007, 18, 220-227.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- FAO 1970. FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series. 1970, 48A, 105.
- Flick EW. Industrial Solvent Handbook. Fifth Ed., NDC, Westwood, USA 1998. 971 s. ISBN 0-8155-1413-1
- Freireich AW, Cinque TJ, Xanthaky G, Landau D. Hemodialysis for isopropanol poisoning. N Engl J Med. 1967, 27, 699-700.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Frezza M, di Padova C, Pozzato G, Terpin M, Baraona E, Lieber CS. High blood alcohol levels in woman. The role of decreased gastric alcohol dehydrogenase activity and first-pass metabolism. N Engl J Med. 1990, 322, 95-99.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Frik W, Strubelt O, Wittmann K. The acute toxicity of drugs following total-body irradiation. [Article in German] Strahlentherapie. 1965; 127(2), 245-252.
Go to PubMed...
- Gerhold RM, Malaney GW. Structural determinants in the oxidation of aliphatic compounds by activated sludge. J Water Pollut Control Fed. 1966, 38, 562-579.
- Gibson PJ, Cant AJ, Mant TG. Ethanol poisoning. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1985, 74, 977-978.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Gill MW, Burleigh-Flayer HD, Strother DE, Masten LW, McKee RH, Tyler TR, Gardiner TH. Isopropanol: acute vapor inhalation neurotoxicity study in rats. J Appl Toxicol. 1995, 15, 77-84.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Goldenthal EI. A compilation of LD50 values in newborn and adult animals. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1971, 18, 185-207.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Grant KA, Samson HH. n-Propanol induced microcephaly in the neonatal rat. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol 1984, 6, 165-169.
Go to PubMed...
- Greenwald EK, Martz RC, Harris PD, Brown DJ, Forney RB, Hughes FW. Ethyl alcohol toxicity in the bat (Myotis lucifugus). Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1968, 13, 358-362.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Griffiths RR, Bigelow GE, Liebson I. Human sedative self-administration: effects of interingestion interval and dose. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1976, 197, 488-494.
Go to PubMed...
- Gurzo SD. Trophic disorders in acute butyl and amyl alcohols intoxications. [Article in Russian] Tr Akad Med Nauk SSSR Mosc Inst Grudn Khir. 1954, 31, 89-91.
Go to PubMed...
- Gülmen MK, Meral D, Hilal A, Akcan R, Cekin N. Methanol intoxications in adana, Turkey. Toxicol Mech Methods. 2006, 16, 353-357.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Hanawalt-Squires C, Anfinson TJ. Dependence, dementia, cerebellar dysfunction, and myopathy in association with chronic isopropanol ingestion. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2002, 36, 46-54.
Go to PubMed...
- Handa SP. Methanol intoxication. Can Med Assoc J. 1983, 128, 14-15.
Go to PubMed...
- Hantson PE. Acute methanol intoxication: physiopathology, prognosis and treatment. [Article in French] Bull Mem Acad R Med Belg. 2006, 161, 425-34, discussion 434-6.
- Hantson PE, Mahieu P. Determination of formic acid tissue and fluid concentrations in three fatalities due to methanol poisoning. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2000, 21, 335-338.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Harger RN, Forney RB. Aliphatic alcohols. Prog Chem Toxicol. 1963, 1, 53-134.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Hodge HC, Sterner JH. Tabulation of toxicity classes. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1949, 10, 93-98.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Hori H, Fujii W, Hatanaka Y, Suwa Y. Effects of fusel oil on animal hangover models. Alcoholism Clin Exp Res. 2003, 27(8 Suppl), 37S-41S.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Jacobsen D, Jansen H, Wiik-Larsen E, Bredesen JE, Halvorsen S. Studies on methanol poisoning. Acta Med Scand. 1982, 212, 5-10.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Jacobsen D, McMartin KE. Methanol and ethylene glycol poisonings. Mechanism of toxicity, clinical course, diagnosis and treatment. Med Toxicol. 1986, 1, 309-334.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Jacobsen E. The metabolism of ethyl alcohol. Pharmacol Rev. 1952, 4, 107-135.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- James JT, Armstrong RD, Leach G, Farrand RL, Burnett D, Englee MJ, Hall WC. A 13-week vapour study of 3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol in sprague-dawley rats. J Appl Toxicol. 1987a, 7, 135-142.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- James JT, Infiesto BP, Landauer MR. Acute inhalation Toxicity of 3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol in sprague dawley rats. J Appl Toxicol. 1987b, 7, 307-312.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Jammalamadaka D, Raissi S. Ethylene glycol, methanol and isopropyl alcohol intoxication. Am J Med Sci. 2010, 339, 276-281.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Jenner PM. Food flavorings and compounds related structure 1. Acute Oral Toxicity. Food Cosmet Toxicol. 1964, 2, 327-343.
Go to original source...
- Keller BJ, Yamanaka H, Liang DC, Kauffman FC, Thurman RG. O2-dependent hepatotoxicity due to ethylhexanol in the perfused rat liver: mitochondria as a site of action. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1990, 252, 1355-1360.
Go to PubMed...
- Kimura ET, Darby TD, Krause RA, Brondyk HD. Parenteral toxicity studies with benzyl alcohol. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1971, 18, 60-68.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Klimisch HJ, Hellwig J. Studies on the prenatal toxicity of 3-methyl-1-butanol and 2-methyl-1-propanol in rats and rabbits following inhalation exposure. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1995, 27, 77-89.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Korsak S, Swiercz R, Jedrychowski R.. Effects of acute combined exposure to n-butyl alcohol and m-xylene. Polish J Occup Med Environ Hlth. 1993, 6, 35-41.
- Kraut JA, Kurtz I. Toxic alcohol ingestions: clinical features, diagnosis, and management. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008, 3, 208-225.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Lachenmeier DW, Haupt S, Schulz K. Defining maximum levels of higher alcohols in alcoholic beverages and surrogate alcohol products. Regulatory Toxicol Pharmacol 2008, 50, 313-321.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Lachenmeier DW, Rehm J, Gmel G. Surrogate alcohol: what do we know and where do we go? Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2007, 31, 1613-1624.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Lang RA, Egli-Gany D, Brill FH, Böttrich JG, Breuer M, Breuer B, Kirschner MH. Transdermal absorption of ethanol- and 1-propanol-containing hand disinfectants. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 2011, 396, 1056-1060.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Lanigan S. Final report on the safety assessment of methyl alcohol. Int J Toxicol. 2001, 20, (Suppl 1), 57-85.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Lappe P, Hofmann T. Pentanols. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. On Line 2000. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a19_049/references
Go to original source...
- Lee PR, Lee DR, Lee P, Arch M. 2010: U.S. drug and alcohol policy, looking back and moving forward. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2010, 42, 99-114.
- Li AA, Thake DC, Kaempfe TA, Branch DK, O'Donnell P, Speck FL, Tyler TR, Faber WD, Jasti SL, Ouellette R, Banton MI. Neurotoxicity evaluation of rats after subchronic inhalation exposure to isobutanol. Neurotoxicology. 1999, 20, 889-900.
- Lide DR. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87 ed.), Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1998, pp. 3-310, 5-47, 8-106, ISBN 0-8493-0594-2.
- Lieber CS. Metabolism of ethanol. In: Medical disorder of alcoholism, Lieber CS (Ed), WB Saunders, Philadelphia 1982.
- Lindamood C 3rd, Farnell DR, Giles HD, Prejean JD, Collins JJ, Takahashi K, Maronpot RR. Subchronic toxicity studies of t-butyl alcohol in rats and mice. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1992, 19, 91-100.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Liu Q, Zhou L, Zheng N, Zhuo L, Liu Y, Liu L. Poisoning deaths in China: type and prevalence detected at the Tongji Forensic Medical Center in Hubei. Forensic Sci Int. 2009, 193, 88-94.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Lobert S. Ethanol, isopropanol, methanol, and ethylene glycol poisoning. Crit Care Nurse. 2000, 20, 41-47.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Mackay RK, Colson NJ, Dodd PR, Lewohl JM. Differential Expression of 14-3-3 Isoforms in Human Alcoholic Brain. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2011, 35, 1041-1049.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Maickel RP, McFadden DP. Acute toxicology of butyl nitrites and butyl alcohols. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol. 1979, 26, 75-83.
Go to PubMed...
- Mańkowski W, Klimaszyk D, Krupiński B. How to differentiate acute isopropanol poisoning from ethanol intoxication? - a case report. [Article in Polish] Przegl Lek. 2000, 57, 588-590.
Go to PubMed...
- McGinty D, Lapczynski A, Scognamiglio J, Letizia CS, Api AM. Fragrance material review on isoamyl alcohol. Food Chem Toxicol. 2010, 48, suppl. 4, S102-S109.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- McGregor D. Tertiary-Butanol: a toxicological review. Crit Rev Toxicol. 2010, 40, 697-727.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- McMahon DM, Winstead S, Weant KA. Toxic alcohol ingestions: focus on ethylene glycol and methanol. Adv Emerg Nurs. J. 2009, 31, 206-213.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Motiuk K. Wool wax alcohols: A review. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 1989, 56, 651-658.
Go to original source...
- MSDS, Material Safety Data Sheet Number A6408, t-Amyl alcohol. 2008. Available on-line at: http://www.jtbaker.com/msds/englishhtml/a6408.htm
- MSDS, Material Safety Data Sheet Number SLP2368, 3-pentanol. 2005b. Available on-line at: http://www.sciencelab.com/xMSDS-3_Pentanol-9926425
- MSDS, Material Safety Data Sheet Number SLP5197, 2-pentanol. 2005a. Available on-line at: http://www.sciencelab.com/xMSDS-2_Pentanol-992642
- Munch JC, Schwarze EW. Narcotic and toxic potency of aliphatic alcohols upon rabbits. J Lab Clin Med. 1925, 10, 985-996.
- Mydler TT, Wasserman GS, Watson WA, Knapp JF. Two-week-old infant with isopropanol intoxication. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1993, 9, 146-148.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Nakajima D, Ishii R, Kageyama S, Onji Y, Mineki S, Morooka N, Takatori K, Goto S. Genotoxicity of microbial volatile organic compounds. J Hlth Sci. 2006, 52, 148-153.
Go to original source...
- Nelson BK, Brightwell WS, Burg JR. Comparison of behavioral teratogenic effects of ethanol and n-propanol administered by inhalation to rats. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol. 1985, 7, 779-783.
Go to PubMed...
- Nelson BK, Brightwell WS, Khan A, Burg JR, Goad PT. Lack of selective developmental toxicity of three butanol isomers administered by inhalation to rats. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1989a, 12, 469-479.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Nelson BK, Brightwell WS, Krieg EF Jr. Developmental toxicology of industrial alcohols: a summary of 13 alcohols administered by inhalation to rats. Toxicol Ind Health. 1990, 6, 373-387.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Nelson BK, Brightwell WS, Khan A, Krieg EF, jr., Hoberman AM. Development toxicology evaluation of 1-pentanol, 1-hexanol, and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol administered by inhalation to rats. Int J Toxicol. 1989c, 8, 405-410.
- Nelson BK, Brightwell WS, Robertson SK, Khan A, Krieg EF Jr, Massari VJ. Behavioral teratology investigation of 1-butanol in rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1989b, 11, 313-315.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Opdyke DL. Monographs on fragrance raw materials. Food Cosmet Toxicol. 1973, 11, 95-115.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Osby U, Liljenberg J, Kockum I, Gunnar A, Terenius L. Genes and alcohol. Eur Psychiatry. 2010, 25, 281-283.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Paasma R, Hovda KE, Jacobsen D. Methanol poisoning and long term sequelae - a six years follow-up after a large methanol outbreak. BMC Clin Pharmacol. 2009, 9, 5.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Paasma R, Hovda KE, Tikkerberi A, Jacobsen D. Methanol mass poisoning in Estonia: outbreak in 154 patients. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2007, 45, 152-157.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Papa AJ. Amyl alcohols. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 2000. On-line: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/0471238961.0113251216011601.a01/full
Go to original source...
- Papa AJ. Propanol. Ullman's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2011, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_173.pub2
Go to original source...
- Parker KM, Lera TA Jr. Acute isopropanol ingestion: pharmacokinetic parameters in the infant. Am J Emerg Med. 1992, 10, 542-544.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Parmeggiani L. Encycl Occup Hlth Safety, 10th Ed. New York, 1983, 1602-1603. On-line: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.a22_157/full
- Patnaik P. Alcohols. A Comprehensive Guide to the Hazardous Properties of Chemical Substances, Third Ed., 2006. On-line: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470134955.ch4/summary
Go to original source...
- Patočka J, Hon Z. Ethylene glycol, hazardous substance in the household Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove). 2010, 53, 19-23.
Go to original source...
- Patty FA. Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, 3rd. ed., Wiley-Interscience, New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore. IIC 4571-4578, 1982.
- Purchase IHF. Studies in kaffir corn malting and Brewing. XXII. The acute toxicity of some fusel oils found in Bantu beer. South Afr Med J. 1969, 43, 795-798.
- Reddy NJ, Sudini M, Lewis LD. Delayed neurological sequelae from ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol and methanol poisonings. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2010, 48, 967-973.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Reese E, Kimbrough RD. Acute toxicity of gasoline and some additives. Environ Health Perspect. 1993, 101(Suppl 6), 115-131.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Rich J, Scheife RT, Katz N, Caplan LR. Isopropyl alcohol intoxication. Arch Neurol. 1990, 47, 322-324.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Rumyanstev AP, Lobanova IY, Tiunova LV, Chernikova VV. Toxicology of butyl alcohol. Khim Prom Ser Toksikol Sanit Khim Plastmass. 1979, 2, 24-26.
- Sakai K, Kamijima M, Shibata E, Ohno H, Nakajima T. Indoor air pollution by 2-ethyl-1-hexanol in non-domestic buildings in Nagoya, Japan. J Environ Monit. 2006, 8, 1122-1128.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Sanaei-Zadeh H, Esfeh KS, Zamani N, Jamshidi F, Shadnia S. Hyperglycemia is a strong prognostic factor of lethality in methanol poisoning. J Med Toxicol. 2011, 7, 189-194.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Saunders WB. Handbook of Toxicology, 4. Vols., Philadelphia. 1955, 1, 128.
- Scala RA, Burtis EG. Acute toxicity of a homologous series of branched-chain primary alcohols. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1973, 34, 493-499.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Schaefer CE, Yang X, Pelz O, Tsao DT, Streger SH, Steffan RJ. Anaerobic biodegradation of iso-butanol and ethanol and their relative effects on BTEX biodegradation in aquifer materials. Chemosphere. 2010, 81, 1111-1117.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Schafer EW Jr, Bowles WA Jr, Hurlbut J. The acute oral toxicity, repellency, and hazard potential of 998 chemicals to one or more species of wild and domestic birds. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 1983, 12, 355-382.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Schaffarzick RW, Brown BJ. The anticonvulsant activity and toxicity of methylparafynol (dormison) and some other alcohols. Science. 1952, 116, 663-665.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Schmidt P, Fox G, Hollenbach K, Rothe R. Acute toxicity of thioglycolic acid-2-ethylhexylesters in animal experiments. [Article in German] Z Gesamte Hyg. 1974, 20, 575-578.
Go to PubMed...
- Sitarek K, Berlińska B, Barański B. Assessment of the effect of butanol given to female rats in drinking water on fertility. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 1994, 7, 365-370.
Go to PubMed...
- Smith EN, Taylor RT. Acute toxicity of methanol in the folate-deficient acatalasemic mouse. Toxicology. 1982, 25, 271-287.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Smyth HF Jr, Carpenter CP, Weil CS, Pozzani UC, Striegel JA. Range-finding toxicity data: List VI. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1962, 23, 95-107.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Snyder R (Ed.). Ethel Browning's Toxicity Metabolism Industrial Solvents, 2nd. Ed., Vol. 3, Alcohol and Esters. Mew York, Elsevier, 1992, 133.
- Soehring K, Frey HH, Endres G. Relations between constitution and effect of tertiary alcohols. [Article in German] Arzneimittelforschung. 1955, 5, 161-165.
- Spanagel R, Bartsch D, Brors B, Dahmen N, Deussing J, Eils R, Ende G, Gallinat J, Gebicke-Haerter P, Heinz A, Kiefer F, Jäger W, Mann K, Matthäus F, Nöthen M, Rietschel M, Sartorius A, Schütz G, Sommer WH, Sprengel R, Walter H, Wichmann E, Wienker T, Wurst W, Zimmer A. An integrated genome research network for studying the genetics of alcohol addiction. Addict Biol. 2010, 15, 369-379.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Staples CA. A review of the environmental fate and aquatic effects of a series of C4 and C8 oxo-process chemicals. Chemosphere. 2001, 45, 339-346.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Steinmann D, Faber T, Auwärter V, Heringhaus C. Acute intoxication with isopropanol. [Article in German] Anaesthesist. 2009, 58, 149-152.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Stetten DW, Schoenheimer R. The biological relations of the higher aliphatic alcohols to fatty acids. J Biol Chem. 1940, 133, 347-357.
Go to original source...
- Strubelt O, Deters M, Pentz R, Siegers CP, Younes M. The toxic and metabolic effects of 23 aliphatic alcohols in the isolated perfused rat liver. Toxicol Sci. 1999, 49, 133-142.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Szende B, Tyihák E. Effect of formaldehyde on cell proliferation and death. Cell Biol Int. 2010, 34, 1273-1282.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Teramoto K, Wakitani F, Horiguchi S, Jo T, Yamamoto T, Mitsutake H, Nakaseko H. Comparison of the neurotoxicity of several chemicals estimated by the peripheral nerve conduction velocity in rats. Environ Res. 1993, 62, 148-154.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Tichý M, Trčka V, Roth Z, Krivucová M. QSAR analysis and data extrapolation among mammals in a series of aliphatic alcohols. Environ Health Perspect. 1985, 61, 321-328.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Välimäki M, Härkönen M, Ylikahri R. Acute effects of alcohol on female sex hormones. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1983, 7, 289-293.
- Van Wieringen H, Letteboer TG, Pereira RR, de Ruiter S, Balemans WA, Lindhout D. Diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. [Article in Dutch]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2010, 154, A331.
Go to PubMed...
- Veenstra G, Webb C, Sanderson H, Belanget SE, Fisk P, Nielsen A, Kasai Y, Willing A, Dyer S, Penney D, Certa H, Stanton K, Sedlak R. Human health risk assessment of long chain alcohols. Ecotoxicol Environment Safety. 2009, 72, 1016-1030.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Von Oettingen, W.F. The aliphatic alcohols, their toxicity and potential dangers in relation to their chemical constitution and their fate in metabolism. U.S. Public Health Service., Publ Hlth Bull, 1943. No. 281. U.S. Gov Print Office. Washington, D.C.
- Vujasinovic M, Kocar M, Kramer K, Bunc M, Brvar M. Poisoning with 1-propanol and 2-propanol. Hum Exp Toxicol. 2007, 26, 975-978.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Wagenaar AC, Tobler AL, Komro KA. Effects of alcohol tax and price policies on morbidity and mortality: a systematic review. Am J Public Health. 2010, 100, 2270-2278.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Wagner JD, Lappin GR, Zietz R. Alcohols, Higher Aliphatic, Synthetic Processes. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 2000. On-line: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/0471238961.1925142023010714.a01/abstract?systemMessage=Wiley+Online+Library+will+be+disrupted+2nd+Apr+from+10-12+BST+for+monthly+maintenance
Go to original source...
- Wallage HR, Watterson JH. Formic acid and methanol concentrations in death investigations. J Anal Toxicol. 2008, 32, 241-247.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Weast RC (Ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (62nd ed.), Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, p. C-192, ISBN 0-8493-0462-8.
- Wiberg GS, Trenholm HL, Coldwell BB. Increased ethanol toxicity in old rats: changes in LD50, in vivo and in vitro metabolism, and liver alcohol dehydrogenase activity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1970, 16, 718-727.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Wiernikowski A, Piekoszewski W, Krzyzanowska-Kierepka E, Gomułka E. Acute oral poisoning with isopropyl alcohol in alcoholics. Przeglad Lekarski. 1997, 54, 459-463.
Go to PubMed...
- Wilkonson PK. Pharmacokinetics of ethanol: A review. Alcoholism. Clin Exp Res. 1980, 4, 6-21.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Winter D, Sauvard S, Stănescu C, Theodorescu M, Winter J, Nitelea I. The influence of metronidazol and disulfiram on the pharmacologic action of ethanol. Pharmacology. 1969, 2, 27-31.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Wrenn K. Isopropyl alcohol intoxication. Arch Neurol. 1991, 48, 18.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...
- Zaman F, Pervez A, Abreo K. Isopropyl alcohol intoxication: a diagnostic challenge. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002, 40, E12.
Go to original source...
Go to PubMed...